Voyage to the Bering Sea - Ports & Places

Overview | Rates & Dates | Deck Plan | Ports & Places

Arctic Circle - Follow in the footsteps of Amundsen, Peary, and Byrd: The Arctic Circle circumscribes the Earth at 66.5 degrees north of the Equator. It is the southern limit of the northern frigid-zone and where, for one or more days each year, the sun does not set or rise. The 66th Parallel demarcation zone crowns the globe with a region of intense unique beauty and icy remoteness and circles the regions of the Russian Far East, Siberia, Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Iceland, and Scandinavia. Far removed from the world’s general populace, its indigenous peoples have survived in and adapted to a severe environment few of us could imagine. The history of the First Peoples of this area is complex, with many mysteries still unanswered; however, extensive archeological, paleontological and linguistic studies have been and continue to be made. The dominant culture in North Alaska today is the Inupiat, a highly adaptable culture based on sea and land mammal hunting and salt and freshwater fishing, traveling by kayak and large skin boats in summer (umiaq) and utilizing hand-drawn sleds in winter. Their shelters were small semi-subterranean dwellings enhanced by ingenious cold-trap entrances to keep heat inside. It is thought that areas within the Arctic Circle were first explored in the 9th–12th centuries by the Norse, followed by 16th–17th century explorers searching for the Northwest Passage. Martin Frobisher discovered the southern part of Baffin Island (1576–78), and Henry Hudson navigated the eastern coast of Hudson Bay (1610–11). Later explorers included Roald Amundsen, Fridtjof Nansen, Robert E. Peary, and Richard E. Byrd. Major whaling communities were established in the Arctic during the 1700s and 1800s, taking advantage of the bountiful, if not treacherous ice-laden seas. Development of the area's natural resources was spurred by the discovery of oil in Alaska in the 1960s and now virtually all of the Arctic has been mapped. Because this region is so rich in mineral and natural resources, it has become a target for economic development, and simultaneously for protection of the world’s last true wilderness by conservationists and environmentalists.

Shumagin Islands - Hunt for petrified wood on the Shumagin Islands: The village of Unga, on the island of the same name, is now uninhabited, abandoned in 1969. Most residents have relocated to the new community of Sand Point, which is on neighboring Shumagin Island. The name Shumagin was given to this group of over a dozen islands by members of Vitus Bering’s expedition to honor one of their own who died there. Unga, like many of the islands in this region, is rich in minerals. Coal and gold mining in this region first occurred on Unga, lasting until the early 1900s. There was renewed interest in Unga’s gold in the 1980s, although no one has come forward to actively pursue mining. In addition to mining, fishing was central to the development of Unga. Over the years, however, Sand Point has become the focal point for fish processing in this part of the Aleutians. Cod, halibut, and salmon have been the primary catch, not only for the cash economy, but also for subsistence. Residents supplement their diets with other marine life, including shellfish and a variety of kelp. Visitors of Unga Island may see arctic fox, bald eagles, and seals. This is also a beautiful place to view tundra wildflowers. One of the island’s more unique features is the abundance of ancient petrified wood along the shoreline.

St. Lawrence Island - See walruses and reindeer on St. Lawrence Island: Savoonga and Gambell are the only two communities still in existence on St. Lawrence Island, which lies 164 miles west of the Alaskan mainland. Reindeer were introduced to the island in 1900 after a famine in the late 1800s. The herd is no longer managed, but reindeer make up part of the subsistence diet of the island residents. Known as the “Walrus Capital of the World,” Savoonga’s residents rely on walruses not only for a substantial portion of their diet, but also for their ivory. Savoonga is well known for the exceptional quality of the ivory carvings produced there. It is not uncommon for residents living elsewhere in the state to return to the village during the walrus-hunting season. The indigenous culture here is the Siberian Yupik, who share language and heritage with the Siberian Yupik of the Chukotka Peninsula in the Russian Far East. Families that once traveled freely from one country to another were separated during the Cold War. In the early 1980's, families were reunited, and once again can travel back and forth. Special provisions allow island residents to travel between the two countries without a visa. Siberian Yupik is the first language of those who live here, and their heritage is strong, with traditional festivals held to celebrate the Yupik way of life. St. Lawrence Island is jointly owned by Savoonga and Gambell. The communities chose not to participate in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1981, and instead were given title to 1.136 million acres. According to the 2000 census, there are approximately 700 Savoonga residents living in 160 housing units and 640 residents living in Gambell in 187 housing units.

Little Diomede Island - Learn about subsistence cultures on Little Diomede Island: Early Eskimos on the islands were fearless men of the ice and sea, with an advanced culture practicing elaborate whale-hunting ceremonies. They traded with both continents. The islands were named in 1728 by Vitus Bering in honor of Saint Diomede. The 1880 census counted 40 people, all Ingalikmiut Eskimos, in the village of "Inalet." When the Iron Curtain was formed, Big Diomede became a Soviet military base and all Native residents were moved to mainland Russia. During World War II, Little Diomede residents who strayed into Soviet waters were taken captive. It wasn’t until the 1980s that families have been able to reunite and visit one another. The City was incorporated in 1970. Some residents are interested in relocating the village, due to the rocky slopes and harsh storms, lack of useable land for housing construction, and inability to construct a water/sewer system, landfill or airport. A federally recognized tribe is located in the community -- the Native Village of Diomede (a.k.a. Inalik). 93.8% of the population are Alaska Native or part Native. Diomede is a traditional Ingalikmiut Eskimo village with a subsistence lifestyle. Seal, polar bear, blue crab, and whale meat are the preferred foods. Mainland Natives come to Diomede to hunt polar bears. Seal and walrus hides are used to make individual clothing items, parkas, hats, mukluks, and furs and skins for trade. Villagers scale the island’s rocky edges and plateau to forage for berries and edible plants. Durable goods are brought in by barge once a year, and if conditions are right, mail can be delivered once a week, usually by helicopter. The closest U.S. community on the mainland is Wales, which is 28 miles across the Bering Strait by boat. The sale or importation of alcohol is banned in the village.

Knight Island - Visit the remote wilderness of Knight Island: Knight Island, 25 miles long and two to nine miles wide, is located in the remote southwestern portion of Prince William Sound, 40 miles southeast of Whittier. Spectacular coves, inlets, and steep rocky cliffs surround the island, and the waterways of Knight Island Passage and Montague Straits support an extraordinary abundance of marine mammals including humpback whales, orcas, sea otters, harbor seals, and sea lions. In the early 1900's (1903-09) 42 mining claims were staked along most of Knight Island, but only two claims in Drier Bay and the Pandora Mine on Knight Island ever produced any copper ore, with its southern neighbor of Latouche Island producing the richest claims. Unsuccessful miners turned to fox farming and fishing on and around these remote islands; however, Knight Island has remained relatively uninhabited since the copper mining heyday. Unfortunately, all the islands in this southwestern portion of Prince William Sound were in the path of the 1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill, with Knight Island being heavily affected. Today, the devastated ecosystem and wildlife habitat is recovering and it is difficult to notice any harm along the surface of this rugged and remote landscape.

Whittier - Visit the community of Whittier, gateway to the Prince William Sound wilderness: Whittier, Alaska is located at the northern end of glacier-lined Passage Canal in Prince William Sound, 65 miles southeast of Anchorage. This tiny, remote community was established as a strategic military facility during World War II. Whittier’s ice-free port has served various marine activities from freight transfers of sea-train barges heading to Southcentral Alaska to a fishing and tourism port. In 1941, the U.S. Congress appropriated $5 million to construct a 2.5 mile tunnel to penetrate the mountains to connect Whittier to Anchorage. This tunnel would be one of the largest in the world, and two years and two tunnels later, the first train arrived in Whittier on June 1, 1943, forever linking this Alaskan outpost by sea and land. By the year 2000, the tunnel began to serve both vehicles and the train. Two of the largest buildings in Alaska were also constructed in Whittier during the war, with the unique concept of housing all residents under one roof. To this day, most of the population of 185 lives in one of these tall buildings, and its tiny boat harbor remains the gateway to the pristine wonders of the beautiful Prince William Sound wilderness.

Bering Sea -Visit one of the most remote, wildlife-rich regions of the north: In order to appreciate the Bering Sea, one must have an appreciation for complex relationships and the balance in nature. This harsh, and often deadly, marine environment has devastated coastal communities, yet the indigenous cultures that arrived here as recently as 10,000 years ago survive by the sea, and would likely perish elsewhere. The Bering Sea is teeming with fish, crustaceans, sea birds, and mammals, all of which are essential to the subsistence and cash economy of the region. Here, you will find more of everything: several hundred species of birds, nesting in colonies that number in the thousands; millions of fur seals in centuries-old birthing grounds; the world’s largest concentration of walruses; and one of the world’s richest and most productive fisheries. One of the most dramatic migrations of marine mammals occurs here as this is the summer destination of the gray whales, which winter in the Sea of Cortés between January and March. The Bering Sea, most scientists believe, stands as an indicator of climate change. Changes in the population of marine life, variations in sea ice, and warming of the ocean itself are noticeable measures of the physical and biological components of the ecosystem, although the effects are not yet completely understood. Each year ice may extend 600 miles south of the Bering Strait. Named for Vitus Bering, a Danish mariner hired by the Russian empire to chart the area between Russia and the west coast of North America, and ultimately to promote Russian trade and industry, the Bering Sea is today as much of a scientific mystery as it was in 1741 when Bering and Georg Steller set out in uncharted waters. The second Kamchatka Expedition, with the vessels St. Peter and St. Paul, covered tremendous territory, and would change the course of history. Bering, commanding the St. Peter, ultimately discovered the Aleutian Islands. It was on this fateful voyage that Bering, sickened by scurvy, landed on an uninhabited island and eventually died. That island is now known as Bering Island.

Pribilof Islands - Follow Vitus Bering to the Pribilof Islands: Gerasim Pribylov, a Russian fur trader, is credited for discovering the islands which now bear his name, although an ancient Aleutian legend describes the story of a young man named Igadik, who, after observing the migration of pregnant seals, ventured into the sea to follow the seals and was caught in a storm. He swiftly paddled his badairka in the direction of barking noises and there he found the island inhabited by fur seals. The Pribilofs, as they are now known, consist of five islands north of the Aleutian chain. The community of St. George is on the island of the same name, and is the southern-most of five islands in the Pribilofs. The largest island in the Pribilofs is St. Paul, originally named St. Peter and St. Paul Island, after the two vessels of Vitus Bering’s second expedition. Hundreds of species of birds nest on these islands, and over one million fur seals call the black sand beaches home during the summer months. The first Aleuts to inhabit the islands were relocated from elsewhere along the Aleutian chain during the Russian era in Alaska. During World War II, residents were relocated to Southeast Alaska, where many succumbed to disease and malnutrition. After the war, however, a large number of residents chose to return to the islands, and through their determination, created communities of their own. Although commercial seal harvesting was ended in 1983, residents are still able to harvest seals for subsistence purposes. Commercial fishing and tourism are being developed to diversify the economy. As in much of rural Alaska, the Russian Orthodox church has a significant role in these communities. The weather in the Pribilofs can be extreme and harsh as the islands are not sheltered from frontal systems coming across the Bering Sea. Most trees do not survive the winds. In addition to wind, St. George and St. Paul receive an average of 23 inches of rain and 57 inches of snowfall. This arctic maritime climate ranges temperatures from 19 to 52 degrees Fahrenheit.

Aleutian Islands - Discover the austere beauty of the Aleutian Islands: The more than 200 Aleutian Islands stretch westward for 1,200 miles from the southwest corner of mainland Alaska. Attu is the farthest island from the Alaska mainland and Unimak the closest. Separating the Pacific Ocean from the Bering Sea, these volcanic islands, at first glance, may seem barren and desolate. Upon closer inspection, however, you will find an abundance of life and breathtaking beauty. Virtually treeless, a variety of grasses, wildflowers, and berries grow in this region. The vivid colors are often a surprising find in this gray and foggy environment. The delicate nature of some of these plants seems to belie the harsh environment in which they thrive. The islands themselves are alive, as most are considered active volcanoes, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Not all of the eruptions are dramatic or devastating, but they do serve as a constant reminder of the untold and unpredictable forces of nature that have shaped this unique and awe-inspiring place. Of course, the presence of humans has also done much to change life on these islands. First inhabited by the Unangans, as many as 20,000 people lived throughout the chain. With first contact, the culture would soon change. When the second Kamchatka Expedition returned to Russia with thousands of sea otter pelts, a directive was given to return and commence fur harvest and trade, forever changing the balance of nature and cultural composition on these islands. In 1942 the Aleutian island of Attu gained the distinction of being the only location where World War II was fought on U.S. soil. Today, the communities of the Aleutian Islands have carved out an important niche in the U.S. and international economy while preserving and sharing the traditional ways of the past.

Subsistence - Learn how Native Alaskans live off the land: Subsistence is unfamiliar and uncommon to many of us, but is a way of life for many of the villagers we visit in the Bering Sea, Alaska, British Columbia, and even Central America. Most of the modern world is based on a cash economy, full-time employment and access to urban centers and markets where we are able to purchase what we need with the cash we make. In rural Alaska and Russia, many villages are located so far from urban centers that there are no full-time employers to provide income, and no markets where they can make purchases, therefore they rely on the land,the sea, the rivers, and each other to survive. What is caught is shared amongst everyone, young and old. Specialized products like seal oil are often traded among other communities for items that are usually unavailable to them, such as wood like willow, hemlock, birch, and spruce to build with. It is no accident that many subsistence villages are located on or near the shores of a river or a lake, or on the coasts of the Pacific, Bering Sea, or Arctic Ocean. The natives rely on what they are able to take from the waters and the land to provide for their way of life. They look to the waters for various types of fish, whales, and walrus, and to the land for fox, caribou, nesting sea birds, and polar bears. They harvest the meat for food, use the walrus hides for skin boats, feathers and furs for parkas, mittens and boots, intestines for waterproof clothing, buoys and bags, and use the bones and sinew for sewing. The processing and drying of the meat is done as it has been for thousands of years. To round out their diet, berries and edible plants are gathered from the tundra and forests. You will see walrus meat and hides hanging to dry from wooden racks, and you may see and smell this year's whale kill as it lingers on the beach. As you meet and learn about subsistence, you will also come to know the rich culture and traditions of each people. The stories of their hunts and traditions are told in song and dance by men and women dressed in traditional kuskpuk, mittens, and boots, and their stories are in the ivory carving of the walrus hunter or in the native doll to which hours of painstaking labor has been put into creating a miniature replica of a feather parka that dresses the doll.

Unalaska and Dutch Harbor - Visit the remote outposts of Unalaska and Dutch Harbor: Unalaska and Dutch Harbor are often thought of as two separate communities, and although they are on two separate islands, Dutch Harbor (on Amaknak Island) is within the city limits of Unalaska. Amaknak Island and Unalaska Island are connected by a bridge. Like Kodiak, Unalaska, although small and remote, is a culturally diverse community due to the commercial fishing industry and fish processing activities. The latest estimates suggest the population of this island community is 7% Aleut, 19% Asian/Pacific Islander; 13% Hispanic, and 61% Caucasian. Dutch Harbor provides a natural protection for fishing vessels. The harbor has been ranked the #1 port in the nation for seafood volume and value for the past 11 years. While thriving as an important port for commercial fishing, fish processing, and related services, subsistence activities remain vital to the community. It is estimated that as many as 24 separate villages inhabited these islands in the mid 1700's. Many residents were relocated to the Pribilof Islands by the Russian fur traders in 1787. In 1825, a Russian Orthodox priest, Ivan Veniaminov (later, Saint Innocent), constructed the Church of the Holy Ascension of Christ, and began a life’s work that is still evident today. The Church is the oldest Russian Orthodox cruciform-style church in North America, and the prevalence of Russian Orthodox in rural Alaska, and particularly among Native Alaskans, is largely attributed to Veniaminov, who worked with the Aleuts to develop a written language and then translated the liturgy. Native Alaskan myths, legends, and celebrations parallel much of the scripture and feasts of the Russian Orthodox church. Residents of Unalaska were forced to relocate to camps in Southeast Alaska after the island was bombed by the Japanese in 1942. Upon their return in 1945, residents found many homes and buildings destroyed or ransacked. It is considered nothing short of a miracle that the church and its precious historic icons were preserved. The community rebuilt itself, and today serves as a regional hub for transportation, fisheries, and international trade.

Anchorage - Discover the "Big City" pleasures of Anchorage: Anchorage is the largest community in Alaska with 270,000 residents. The town was founded in 1914, and within one year, the Alaska Railroad made Anchorage its hub. In 1915, Anchorage became a tent city of 2,000 people following the ‘Great Anchorage Lot Sale.’ The land auction sold lots for an average of $225 each. The city of Anchorage became officially incorporated in 1920. Major military impact allowed for the growth of Anchorage between 1939 and 1957. Roads were built and airports were constructed, allowing for continual growth of the city, and the port of Anchorage was completed in the early 1960s. In 1964, the Good Friday Earthquake demolished a large part of the town. The quake registered 9.2 on the Richter Scale, killing 131 people. Downtown Anchorage and residential areas suffered massive land slide damage. During the 1970s, Anchorage experienced another major economic boom with the construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. The economy continues to thrive on natural resource production, along with finance and real estate, government agencies, tourism and transportation. Downtown Anchorage offers a variety of shops and enjoyable cafes and restaurants. You will enjoy your day of sightseeing, traveling south along the Turnagain Arm, a beautiful trip by motorcoach to view Cook Inlet, and looking for mountain goats along the Chugach Mountain Range. You will visit the Alyeska Resort and partake in a scenic tram ride to the summit. Later in the day you will travel northeast to the Alaska Native Heritage Center and have the wonderful opportunity to learn about the various native cultures in Alaska. Members of different tribes conduct education workshops, discussing their history, customs, and way of life.

Athabascan Culture - Learn how the Athabascan culture lives on in present-day Alaska: The Athabascan Indians of Alaska reside primarily within the interior of the state between the Brooks Range and the Alaska Range, occupying the largest geographic area of all the native cultures in Alaska. The exception is the Dena’ ina tribe, which resides along the Cook Inlet shoreline. There are eleven ethnic and linguistic subgroups in the Athabascan culture: the Ahtna, Dena’ ina, Deg Hit’an, Holikachuk, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Tanana, Tanacross, Upper Tanana, Han and Gwich’in. Many of the linguistic groups can be linked to the Apache and Navajo groups of southwest America. The Gwich’in and the Koyukon groups have the largest number of native speakers, however many of them are elders. A decline in young speakers is becoming evident each year. The decline in native speakers is a common challenge throughout the state, one that native leaders are trying to solve. Other concerns include maintaining the intricate native artistry, such as the complex beadwork, clothing, and crafting of weapons and hunting tools. A beautiful spoken craft is that of storytelling, used to teach about cultural values and doctrine. This continues to be a very important part of Athabascan culture. There are about 12,000 Athabascans living in Alaska. Most villages have satellite communication, television, and Internet access. Few homes have running water and flush toilets, and electricity is commonly provided by village-sponsored diesel-powered generators. Many individuals still live in remote areas inaccessible by road systems. Residents of remote native villages are dependent on the use of small aircraft for supplies and the use of all-terrain vehicles such as four wheelers and snow machines. Many natives still use dog sleds for hauling food and supplies and as a mode of transportation. Athabascans continue to depend on subsistence hunting and gathering. Those groups, residing near bodies of water, rely upon salmon harvesting, along with white fish, grayling, moose, caribou, bear, berries, and birds. Those groups living further inland away from major rivers rely heavily on hunting caribou and moose. In addition to subsistence, some natives hold government jobs, working in the schools and in health facilities. Others work construction, or fish commercially.

Inupiat Eskimos - Discover the Inupiat Eskimos' unique culture: The Inupiat Eskimos inhabit the farthest north region in Alaska. An estimated 13,000 Inupiat live in the state, residing in their traditional homeland. Inupiat people also live in Anchorage, Fairbanks, and other Alaskan towns, often carrying on with traditional customs, such as the custom of sharing. This custom provides help and assistance within common social groups, such as assisting in a community member's life by helping with transportation, childcare, financial assistance, and food. This custom of helping can be traced back for thousands of years. However, requesting assistance is deemed inappropriate, because not everyone can partake in sharing. If you were to receive assistance, it is considered rude to give back immediately. Rather, favors should be returned over a long period of time, without drawing a great deal of attention. Many Inupiats continue with traditional subsistence whaling and hunting. The entire community participates as clothing and food are prepared, supplies are gathered, and when the hunt is successful, everyone contributes to the dividing of the meat. Not all Inupiats partake in whaling. Some raise reindeer, a domesticated caribou, harvesting the meat and antlers. Others harvest walrus, seal, polar bear, grizzly bear, moose, caribou, a large variety of salmon and fish, waterfowl, and berries.

Prince William Sound - Bring lots of film when you cruise Prince William Sound: Prince William Sound is a must-see if you believe that “big things come in small packages.” Roughly the size of Puget Sound and three times the size of San Francisco Bay, Prince William Sound stretches nearly 70 miles both across and from top to bottom. Sailing the Sound brings visitors up-close and personal with centuries-old glacial ice, from small cirque glaciers (shallow bowls on high mountain peaks) to large tidewater glaciers (glaciers that end with their faces in water). It’s exciting to watch these large rivers of ice drop huge pieces into the water right in front of you! Listen for the sound of the mass moving along; large fissures crack like rifle shots as the plummeting chunks of ice smack the water. As the glacier calves, it creates a chain reaction in the water, moving ice bits, bergs, and the sea life with it. This area is steeped in history, with a diversity of names that indicate the people who left their mark here. You’ll find Native, Russian, English, and Spanish names reflecting the pioneers who explored and lived in this area. Because the rugged and tall Chugach and Kenai Mountains cut off Prince William Sound from the interior, it’s easy to pretend you are one of the first explorers to sail in these waters. One of the shaping forces of Alaska is out in the Sound, the collision deep in the earth of the Pacific Plate with the North American Plate. It has lifted up the world's greatest coastal mountains, the Chugach. The highest peak in the Chugach Range, 13,176-foot Mount Marcus Baker, towers above Harvard Glacier in College Fjord. It’s no wonder that copper, gold, and silver ores, among others, were found aplenty. The incredible scenery -- narrow waterways, forest-covered islands, sea caves, marine mammals, and sea birds -- keeps visitors busy photographing, and with a maximum 19 hours of daylight around the summer solstice, there is plenty of time in which to do it. This is definitely color photography at its best. The color of the water changes from an eye-popping copper sulfate blue to the violet blue of the deep ocean. Close to glaciers the water turns a turbid gray from the glacier “flour” or silt that occurs as glaciers grind the rock on which they slide. We are able to get very close to these spectacles, making the experience richer, more poignant, and the photographs more spectacular: like being in a movie instead of just watching it. This is one place you shouldn’t forget to bring plenty of film. About 12,000 years ago, the glaciers that created this area began to recede, leaving 3,000 highly convoluted miles of shoreline surrounded on three sides by the Chugach Mountains and the Kenai Mountains to the west. The glaciers scoured the Earth's crust down to the granite roots of the Chugach range and dug out deep fjords, glacially-carved valleys filled with seawater, creating the Sound and the rugged, sculpted Chugach Mountains. There are more breathtakingly beautiful tidewater glaciers surrounded by precipitous mountain peaks here than in the rest of Alaska. In all, there are over 20 glaciers terminating at sea level; numerous others cling to precipitous mountainsides. Of these, we see over half up-close and personal.

Glaciers - Visit the Ice Age in Alaska's many glaciers: Glaciers form where more snow falls in the long winter than melts in the short summer and, over a period of years, compacts into ice, becoming massive enough to begin to move. That is, a snow patch becomes a glacier when the deepest layers begin to deform due to the weight of the overlying snow and ice. There are so many glaciers in Prince William Sound because moisture from storms sweeping in off the Pacific Ocean in the winter is trapped by the high mountains and drops that moisture as snow. In fact, in the higher elevations of the Chugach Mountains it is not uncommon for snow to fall 12 months of the year. The thick, accumulating snow layers compress over years into ice that gradually flows down to the sea like massive rivers of ice. In the high reaches of the mountains, the glacier accumulates the snow that turns into ice. This area is called the accumulation zone. It can take the glacial ice about 100 years to move from this point to its terminus point at sea. The ice moves down from the mountains and begins melting and calving into the water. The area where more ice is lost to calving, melting, and evaporating is called the ablation, or melting, zone. The glacier’s thickness is about one-half of the surface width of the glacier. Although few glaciers have been measured, the measured thickness ranges from a few hundred feet for small glaciers to about 5,000 feet for the largest glaciers in Alaska. At the end of the last great Ice Age, the glaciers covering Prince William Sound may have reached two miles in thickness in places. Most of the glacier ice in Alaska is only a few tenths of a degree below the melting temperature, except for a surface layer several feet thick that is cooled during winter. Because of this, most glaciers in Alaska are not frozen to their beds. These glaciers are referred to as "temperate" glaciers. Glaciologists refer to a glacier as a "cold" glacier if it is more than a few degrees below the freezing temperature throughout most of its thickness. Cold glaciers are frozen to the bedrock, do not move, and are found in Greenland and Antarctia. Tidewater glaciers show a cyclical behavior. Glaciers push debris in front of them as they slowly move down a mountainside. The moraine, which is formed of rocks, boulders, and debris, protects the face of the glacier from the melting effects of saltwater. Eventually too much of the glacier is in the melting zone compared to the amount in the accumulation zone and the glacier retreats off its protective moraine. When the glacier retreats, it is still flowing downhill due to gravity and its own mass. Now its ice-face is exposed to the relatively warm salt water and drastic retreat begins with the glacier calving millions of tons of ice daily. When the glacier retreats onto land or into shallow water, the melt rate decreases, the glacier stabilizes, and it once again begins to build a new terminal moraine from rock debris carried down the mountain by the glacier. Over time, the new moraine will protect the face of the glacier again slowing the melting and the glacier will begin to advance, slowly bulldozing its moraine down the mountainside.

Kodiak - Keep your eyes peeled for the magnificent bears of Kodiak: The modern city of Kodiak is just one settlement on Kodiak Island, a lush landscape known as Alaska’s Emerald Isle. To locals, it is affectionately known as “the rock.” Kodiak was the first capital of Russian Alaska, before it was moved to Sitka. During the Russian period, overharvesting of the sea otter for its precious fur led to its near extinction. The indigenous culture, the Suqpiaq (“the real people”), more commonly known as Alutiiq, was also at risk. Because of the influence of the Russian Orthodox church, the people and their traditional ways were protected. Today, St. Herman’s, a Russian Orthodox seminary, is located in Kodiak. Kodiak is a community with tremendous cultural diversity, largely due to the fishing industry. The largest U.S. Coast Guard station is located here, fulfilling its mission not only to homeland security, but also patrolling Alaska’s extensive coastline for illegal foreign fishing, and performing life-saving search and rescue operations in some of the most dangerous fishing grounds in the world. While much of Kodiak’s past and present is tied to the sea, a recent focus of the economic diversification of the community has had residents looking toward space. A commercial launch complex was constructed here, bringing high-tech jobs and dollars to this area. Nature has had a tremendous influence on Kodiak as well. Traces of the 1912 eruption of Novarupta Volcano can be still be found in soils on the island, and the entire city had to be reconstructed after the 1964 Good Friday earthquake and subsequent tsunami. The coastal environment supports not only one of the most productive fisheries in the U.S., but also one of the biggest populations of LARGE brown bears. These magnificent creatures own the shoreline, and feast on nutrient rich salmon. They are considered the same species of brown bear that you will find in interior Alaska, but are often 500 pounds heavier.

Geographic Harbor - Visit the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Geographic Harbor: Katmai National Park is on the top of many “Best of Alaska” lists because of its otherworldly landscape and the opportunity to get up-close and personal to the raw beauty of the 15 active volcanoes and abundant wildlife there. Still considered a living laboratory, it was the spectacular eruption in 1912 of the Novarupta Volcano that brought scientists and researchers to this area. The National Geographic Society led a number of expeditions to Katmai, and in 1919, on its last expedition, Geographic Harbor was discovered in the previously uncharted Amalik Bay. Part of the “Katmai coast,” this is one of the prime areas in this region for bear viewing. Katmai National Monument was created in 1918 when President Wilson set aside just over one million acres to preserve the phenomenon of Mt. Katmai, the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, and their breathtaking beauty. The monument would later become a national park and preserve with a total of 4.7 million acres. The landscape is always being redefined by the seismic and volcanic action in this area.

Nunivak Island - See prehistoric-looking musk ox on Nunivak Island: Nunivak Island is home to one of the Earth’s most peculiar creatures, which seems to have stepped into the present straight from the Ice Age. The musk ox, known as oomingmak to the Yupik, was indigenous to this region, but was overharvested in the late 1800s. In 1935, musk oxen from Greenland were reintroduced to the island, where a herd of approximately 500 still roams. Today, descendants of the Nunivak Island herd live at the Musk Ox Farm, near Palmer in Southcentral Alaska. This herd is managed for the harvest of the musk ox’s undercoat, known as qiviut. The fiber is processed much like cashmere, spun, then woven into incredibly soft and exceptionally warm scarves, smoke rings, hats, and other garments. Each design is unique to the village where it is woven. This endeavor is an important economic development initiative for this region, whose residents maintain a subsistence culture. It has also helped to preserve and pass down from one generation to the next the traditional ways of the residents. Mekoryuk, with a population of 204, is the only inhabited village on Nunivak Island. Its “backyard” is part of the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge. In addition to the reindeer and musk ox that inhabit the island, name your favorite migratory bird and you are likely to see it near Mekoryuk or elsewhere on the island.